Human resources: recruitment and selection

Introduction

This unit is from our archive and it is an adapted extract from The professional certificate in management (B615) which is no longer in presentation. If you wish to study formally at The Open University, you may wish to explore the courses we offer in this curriculum area.

In this session we look at the first stage of managing people – attracting and selecting staff. Recruitment and selection are usually considered as one process. However, we will make the distinction here between the initial actions and considerations when planning staff recruitment and the process of selecting an individual from a pool of applicants. Recruitment needs to be carefully planned in order to attract the right type of applicant. Ultimately, this increases the chances of making a suitable selection and appointment. Your involvement may be limited to a discussion of the need for a particular job within your team or work area, or you may be required to interview job applicants. Whatever your involvement, this session makes it clear that it is important for you to understand the whole process to make an effective contribution to the staffing of your organisation.

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Learning outcomes

After studying this unit you should be able to:

  • list the skills and knowledge needed to conduct full and fair recruitment and selection, and be able to undertake it systematically.

1 1 Overview

The unit begins by looking at how it can be difficult for a manager in the process of recruitment and selection to maintain objectivity. Drawing up clear criteria to use throughout recruitment and selection can help the process. It then addresses the difference between the person–job and person–organisation approaches to recruitment. Subsequent sections review the different tasks to be completed and the different methods which can be used by the manager in this important process.

2 2 Effective recruitment and selection

The key to successful recruitment is to ensure that the criteria of suitability are overt and relevant to the job itself. Once these criteria are agreed and shared it is possible to make more rational decisions about someone's suitability for a job, based on evidence rather than ‘gut feeling’ or instinct. Effective recruitment and selection should not be about the luck of the draw. Systematic planning and preparation will increase the likelihood of taking on the right person. The key to effective recruitment is preparation: knowing the job and what is required of someone to perform it well. The costs of recruiting the wrong person can be significant. The cost of employing someone may be at least twice their salary when factors such as training, expenses and employer's contributions to their pension are added.

Incorrect assumptions about class, gender, ethnic group or physical ability, or any other type of discrimination, can cloud your objectivity in recruitment and selection. At worst this may contravene legislation that exists to protect individuals from discrimination. Other prejudices may be generated by particular organisational traditions regarding the ‘type of person’ considered suitable. However, it is important to ensure that the qualities of the successful applicant match what the organisation requires, perhaps in terms of being forward looking, customer focused or market orientated. It is easy to discriminate in the recruitment and selection process through personal responses and reactions to certain types of people. The recruiter's perception is often influenced by striking characteristics or similarities to themselves. This is called the ‘halo’ effect and can work in either a positive or negative direction (the latter is sometimes called the ‘horns’ effect). The halo effect acts as a filter to any information that contradicts first impressions. For example, someone who attended the same college or university as the recruiter would be at an advantage, while a person not wearing a suit would not be management material. It is often the case that people judge more favourably those individuals with whom they have something in common. Ultimately, you are seeking the best person for the job and any discrimination, intentional or not, may prevent you from achieving that.

Before we look more closely at the recruitment process, spend about ten minutes on the following activity.

Activity 2.1 Activity 1

0 hours 10 minutes

Basing your ideas on your own initial reactions to the characters outlined below, complete the table to describe what would typically be the characteristics associated with them. Do not take too much time to think – just jot down ideas as they come to you. To demonstrate, we have suggested how some people might see the first example; you may not agree with the stereotyping evident in the suggested characteristics!

Table 2.1

JobAge rangeGenderPoliticsHobbiesCar
Social worker27–43EitherLiberal or Green, left-wingCamping cycling ramblingOld Volvo or Saab
Supermarket checkout operative
Building labourer
Accountant
Senior civil servant/government official
Personal secretary to managing director
Police inspector
Salesperson
Fundraiser for a charity

We all harbour stereotypes of what types of people are suitable or unsuitable for particular jobs, and everyone will complete the table differently. However, let us look at a couple of examples. Did you think that the supermarket checkout person would be male or female? The majority of people completing this exercise would have an expectation that a checkout person would be either a very young single female or an older woman who works part-time. They would be unlikely to associate working on a supermarket checkout with a middle-aged man. What cars did you suggest the building labourer and accountant might drive? Which one was more likely to own an executive car? What would you expect the senior civil servant's hobbies to be – gardening or sky diving? The point of this simple exercise is to make you aware of the stereotypes and expectations that may exist about people associated with particular jobs. When recruiting for any job, take care that you are not simply looking for a certain type of person because they are normally associated with the work of the vacant post.

When recruiting people, be alert to any personal prejudices or preferences you have which are not linked to the ability to do the job. Try to set these aside in favour of objective criteria of suitability related to the skills, experience and ability needed to perform the job. But should these criteria relate solely to the job or task requirements? We consider the issue of fit with the wider organisation in the next section.

3 3 Person–job fit or person–organisation fit?

3.1 3.1 A two-way process

It is important for both the job applicant and the organisation to ensure that the right job goes to the right person. Taking the wrong job may be just as disastrous for the employee as for the organisation. Recruitment and selection, therefore, involves the organisation (represented by the manager) and the applicant trying to discover the extent to which their separate interests are likely to be served by the appointment. In other words, it is a two-way process. Applicants should have a realistic picture of the job so that they can decide if they really want it and whether they could do it well. They should also be given the opportunity to consider what type of organisation they may be joining and whether it would suit them. There are two different approaches to assessing suitability for a particular job: person-job fit and person-organisation fit. They are based on different assumptions about people and what determines their behaviour at work.

3.2 3.2 Person–job fit

The traditional approach to recruitment and selection is based on the view that organisations should specify the requirements of the job as closely as possible and then look for individuals whose personal attributes fit those requirements. It is based on the assumption that human behaviour is determined by factors particular to the individual, and the clear implication is that selection techniques should be concerned with accessing and measuring these personal factors, which can then be compared with those required for the job.

The person-job fit approach has been criticised for a variety of reasons. In particular, the amount and pace of change in organisations mean that the jobs for which people are recruited often change. Consequently, organisations may be interested in potential beyond the immediate job, and people have the capacity to influence the organisation's performance beyond the boundaries of their own jobs. Increasingly, it is seen as important to ensure that there is also a fit between the applicant and the organisation.

3.3 3.3 Person–organisation fit

This approach stresses that people's behaviour and performance are strongly influenced by the environment in which they find themselves. So being successful in a job in one organisation does not necessarily imply success in a similar job in another. In assessing the suitability of a job applicant a manager should explore the reasons why a person has performed well in their existing job and consider whether similar conditions apply in the new job. Advocates of the person-organisation fit approach stress that an important consideration in recruitment is how suited the applicant is to the organisation – its style, approach, pace of change and informal ways of working. In other words, you need to think beyond whether someone simply has the technical skills to perform in the job and assess their fit with the culture of the organisation. However, this carries the danger of excluding suitably qualified candidates because their ‘face does not fit’. This approach suggests a greater need to describe the context of the job to applicants, including the difficulties and pressures associated with it. In general, ‘overselling’ a job can result in individuals leaving after a short time and hence the costs of a repeat recruitment and selection process and further managerial time.

4 4 Specifying job and person requirements

4.1 4.1 Initial assessment

To find the right person for the job, you need to have an accurate idea of the job itself and of the particular skills and attributes it demands. This can be carried out in a series of stages, as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1
Figure 4.1 Figure 1 Stages of job and person analysis

However, before – or indeed after – the job analysis you might consider whether the vacant job needs to be filled at all. Reallocation of work, internal promotion or temporary transfer could be used to cover the tasks associated with the vacancy. Ask yourself whether the job needs to be changed, updated or filled at all before going any further. An apparent vacancy provides a real opportunity to consider the way work is organised and the skills the organisation needs to secure its future success; you might wish to consider aspects of person-organisation fit to help develop the job.

Assuming you decide to go ahead and recruit to the existing or changed post, you now need to analyse exactly what the job entails.

4.2 4.2 Job analysis

Job analysis involves examining a job systematically and in detail. There is no single way of doing this. Direct observation may be helpful if you are analysing repetitive manual jobs, for example. Discussion with the current job holder and supervisor or line manager is also a useful source of information. Another method of job analysis is to use the checklist approach illustrated in Box 1, ticking off the various aspects of the job as you consider them.

Box 4.1 Box 1: Checklist – undertaking a job analysis

Check 1 – The key words approach

□ What is done?

□ When is it done?

□ Where is it done?

□ How is it done?

Check 2 – What is the job holder responsible for?

□ Responsibility for the work of others

□ Responsibility for physical resources

□ Responsibility for budgets/money

Check 3 – What sorts of working relationships are involved?

□ Relationships with superiors (if any)

□ Relationships with colleagues

□ Relationships with other departments or agencies

□ Relationships with customers/clients/users

□ Relationships with individuals supervised

Check 4 – What are the job requirements?

□ Required standard of performance and results

□ Required skills and experience

□ Required analytical skills

□ Required education and training

□ Required physique and health (if appropriate)

□ Required motivation and social skills

□ Required attitude or general approach to the work involved

Check 5 – What are the working conditions?

□ The physical environment

□ The social conditions and work group context

□ The economic conditions including funding and pay

Check 6 – Who should be consulted about the analysis?

□ Check back with the job holder

□ Check back with his or her line manager

(Source: based on Cowling and Mailer, 1981, p. 9)

4.3 4.3 Organisational analysis

The broader organisational requirements can be as important as the specific ones for the job itself. The organisation needs creativity, flexibility, the ability to work in a small team, and so on, from the job holder. In line with the person-organisation fit described earlier, it is important to think beyond the technical aspects of the job to the cultural aspects of the organisation.

4.4 4.4 Job description

From your analysis of the job you can write a job description which will state what the job holder is responsible for and what they are required to do (see Example 1).

Example 4.1 Example 1: Job description for a Buying Manager

Job title: Buying Department Manager

Job grade: 10

Responsible to: Contracts Manager

A: Summary of main responsibilities and activities

  • Has overall responsibility for procurement of contracts for both direct orders and subcontracts, including negotiating terms and conditions with suppliers, initiating enquiries, analysing quotations, with detailed involvement in very large or complex orders.

  • Liaises with Estimating and Engineering departments for technical and cost information; makes recommendations on selection of suppliers.

  • Responsible for preparation of contracts.

  • Arranges storage of material for delayed contracts.

  • Responsible for inspection and expedition of orders to ensure that material, plant and equipment meet the specifications for the job and are available when required. Issues inspection and test reports to the client.

  • Authorises payment to suppliers and subcontractors.

  • Negotiates increased costs with suppliers in association with Contracts Manager.

B: Specific responsibilities

1. Staff

  • Direct: Responsible for Senior Buyer, Buyer, Assistant Buyer, Senior Expediter.

  • Indirect: Responsible for selection, training, development and appraisal of all buying and inspection staff in liaison with Contracts Manager.

2. Assets

  • Recommends selection of suppliers and equipment.

3. Planning

  • Plans allocation and organisation of work in Contract Buying and Expedition Department.

  • Provides advice to Contracts Manager during contract planning.

4. Technical decisions

  • Recommends selection of suppliers and subcontractors on the basis of commercial considerations.

5. Financial

  • Responsible for negotiating terms and conditions with suppliers and subcontractors, up to £150,000.

  • Ensures that all orders are executed within Estimators’ budget.

  • Recommends authorisation of final payments to suppliers and subcontractors.

6. Confidential information

  • Prices, discounts, profit margins and similar commercial information.

7. Degree of supervision

  • Works within the broad directives of Contracts Manager. Reports monthly on deviations in terms of cost, time, quality, etc.

8. Contacts

  • Liaises with Head Office staff, for example Contracts Manager, Project Engineer, Design Engineers.

  • Suppliers and subcontractors.

  • Clients (occasional).

  • Site staff.

9. Working conditions

  • Head Office based, in city centre; fortnightly visits to suppliers.

  • Pace of work is often demanding, working with strict time pressures; involves overall responsibility for a large number of contracts simultaneously.

10. Organisational requirements

  • Must be flexible and able to work on own initiative. Must be able to work as part of a team and to interact effectively with external contacts.

(Source: Cowling and Mailer, 1981, pp. 12–13)

Example 1 is a comprehensive description, setting out a full range of responsibilities. There is no one right way of setting out job descriptions and you may find that the ones used in your organisation look different and may be less detailed in comparison. An accurate job description has various uses outside the recruitment process: for example, it can be used to review staff performance in appraisals or to assess training needs when someone new starts with the organisation. Within the recruitment process, the job description leads on to the next stage of specifying the type of person you are looking for to fill your vacancy.

4.5 4.5 Person specification

Once the job and organisational analyses and the job description have been completed (see Figure 1), the next stage is to write a specification of the kind of person needed to fill the job you have just described. It is important to be as precise as possible about the skills, knowledge, qualifications and attributes that are required for the job and about the experience and personal characteristics that are needed. It is good practice to specify what is essential or the minimum required to perform the job, as well as what is desirable. To decide on the qualities required for the person specification you need to pick out key features from the job description. Think also about the context of the job and the wider organisational requirements to specify any elements of person-organisation fit that are important.

Table 1 is an example of a completed person specification; we have added some imaginary aspects of person-organisation fit under ‘Personality’.

When constructing a person specification you need not follow the format described in the table; your organisation may have a standard approach. The exact format of the person specification is less important than making sure you capture what the suitable applicant requires in order to perform the job and fit with the organisation's way of working and culture. You will have noted the ‘How ascertained?’ column in the table. This signals the need to think through how you will measure or assess the specification you are looking for.

Table 4.1 Table 1: Person specification for the position of Buying Department Manager

CharacteristicsEssential/minimumDesirableHow ascertained?
Physical attributesGood health recordExcellent health recordMedical report
Few absences from workPrevious employers' sickness records
Tidy appearanceSmart appearance
Creates good impression on othersInterview
Capable of working for long hours under pressureGive examples at interview
Mental attributesTop 50 per cent for general intelligence, verbal ability and numerical abilityTop 30 per cent for general intelligence, verbal ability and numerical abilityPossible use of selection tests
Education and qualificationsGood general school results with particular aptitude for EnglishTwo A-levels (post-16 higher examination) or equivalent Certificate or Diploma in ManagementQualification certificates
Membership of professional bodyMembership of professional instituteDocumentation
Experience, training and skillsFive years’ experience in purchasingTen years’ experience in purchasingCurriculum vitae (CV)
Two years’ experience of supervising small office or sectionSuccessful record of supervising qualified staffCV/interview: examples
Successful completion of reputable management training courseAttendance/qualification certificates
Good social skills
Fluent in two European languages, including English
Ability to write good reports and understand basic financial informationAbility to plan, organise, coordinate and control work under pressureCV/interview: examples
PersonalityCareer record shows ability to adjust to normal social circumstancesMature and socially well adjustedInterview
Thrives on challenge and change and has an ability to develop new approaches to the workAble to communicate at all levelsInterview
Evidence of experience of dealing with external clientsCV
Special circumstancesAble to work overtime and at weekendsWilling to work long hours when required, and to transfer to other locations in EuropePerson's experience
Able to travel to suppliersFully mobile with valid driving licenceInterview
(Source: based on Cowling and Mailer, 1981, p. 19)

Activity 4.1 Activity 2

0 hours 15 minutes

If you have a job description for your current post, construct a person specification for the job based on a format similar to that in Table 1. Decide what you think should be in the person specification, even if this differs from any actual person specification there may be for your job. Alternatively, or in addition, you could do this for a person who works with or for you. If you do not have a description for your current job, try to work from the main duties and responsibilities you have. (This may convince you that it is easier to work from a fairly thorough job description.) Also, in constructing this person specification, try to indicate some person-organisation fit requirements which may be relevant to your own situation.

  • Physical attributes

  • Mental attributes

  • Education and qualifications

  • Experience, training and skills

  • Personality

  • Special circumstances

When you have completed this task, check what you have written, bearing the following points in mind.

  • Have you thought about the qualities needed to cope with the difficult parts of the job?

  • Have you considered any particular qualities that would be required to fit the culture of the organisation?

  • How carefully have you thought through the education/training needed for the work? Remember that qualifications are only one way of knowing what people have to offer. Skills and experience gained in a whole variety of contexts – for example parenting, voluntary work, leisure interests – can sometimes be just as relevant.

  • Have you included any rigid requirements based on age, physical ability or length of paid work experience which may be questionable on equal opportunities grounds and constitute ‘indirect discrimination’ (specifying a criterion that would effectively debar someone because of their ethnic group, gender, age, disability, etc.)?

  • Have you said which qualities and attributes would be essential and which desirable? Remember, if something is ‘essential’ you should be able to justify it.

  • Is the specification credible? Do such people exist? Are they likely to apply for the salary offered? What are the options if the answers to these questions are probably ‘no'?

4.6 4.6 Recruiting and selecting internal candidates

Where an existing member of staff is applying for a post, you will already have knowledge of their personality, skills, fit with the organisation and so on. However, whether the job they are applying for is very similar to or different from the one they are doing currently, you need to ensure that they receive the same treatment as other candidates. Being an internal candidate is not easy. It can be both an advantage and a disadvantage to be known! Maintaining our theme of objectivity, the recruitment and selection process needs to be seen by all to be fair and equitable.

4.7 4.7 Attracting applicants

You have now established the criteria for recruiting the kind of person you are looking for; the next step is to find someone who meets these criteria. Obviously, you must make it known to people that a vacancy exists. Before placing an expensive advertisement in a newspaper or professional journal you should consider alternatives. There are a variety of methods of publicising recruitment in addition to the traditional media advertisement (see Box 2).

Box 4.2 Box 2: Sources of recruits

  • Internal advertisements

  • Advertising in a range of newspapers and professional and specialist publications

  • Employment agencies and job centres

  • Selection consultants who advertise on your behalf and may screen applicants

  • Executive search consultants (headhunters) who will try to track down suitable candidates for your post

  • Introductions by existing staff, word of mouth. To prevent discrimination this should be accompanied by more formal mechanisms

  • Previous applicants

  • Unsolicited applications

  • The Internet

  • School or university contacts

  • Planned promotions from formal assessment schemes

4.8 4.8 Advertising

If you are managing the recruitment process by a traditional route you will now need to consider advertising the vacancy. Your organisation may have a specific policy or rules governing advertising. The cost of advertising can constitute a significant proportion of any recruitment expenditure and you need to ensure you get an effective response at the least possible cost. The important factors are:

  • the content of the advertisement (key elements of the job, location, salary, etc.)

  • the medium used to carry the advertisement (national paper, professional journal, local magazine, etc.)

  • the timing of the advertisement.

Where you advertise the job is important. If you are looking for specialist skills, then targeting professional journals may be more effective than using a national newspaper. If you are attempting to encourage applicants from specific groups such as people with disabilities, then the websites or magazines of particular societies may be an option.

Just as the content of the advertisement should encourage suitable people to apply for the job, it should also discourage unsuitable candidates from applying. Much individual and organisational time can be wasted in sifting through unsuitable applications, and it is unfair to applicants to raise false expectations. The information contained in the advertisement should be taken largely from the job analysis and the job description (see Box 3).

Box 4.3 Box 3: Contents of a job advertisement

The advertisement should be factual, truthful and relevant. Ludlow and Panton (1991) suggest that it should contain the following:

  • the job title, in terms likely to be familiar to the reader; avoid jargon

  • the name of the organisation, the nature of its activity and the location of the job

  • the aims and responsibilities of the job

  • the qualifications required and the experience needed – this will be a summary of the person specification

  • the salary and fringe benefits; where possible, state the salary range

  • genuine promotion prospects

  • the manner in which applications should be made; for example asking the applicant to send a CV, or to write or telephone for an application form and further information

  • the closing date, if there is one, for applications.

Remember that the advertisement is a public relations opportunity for the organisation. It needs to present the best face of the organisation in order to attract the best applicants. Antidiscrimination employment legislation in many countries applies to most stages of the recruitment process, including advertising. Legislation may make it illegal to discriminate, either directly or indirectly, on the grounds of ethnicity, disability, colour, gender or marital status.

4.9 4.9 Further particulars, application forms and dealing with paperwork

One way of offering more information than can be put into an advertisement is to send further particulars to people who respond. These could explain, for example, current and future developments within the organisation. If your organisation already has a standard application form, you will almost certainly use that. Otherwise, you could ask applicants to write a letter of application, possibly accompanied by a CV. It is also useful to ask for details of referees at this stage, but bear in mind that candidates might have objections to them being contacted before the job is offered.

Handling the administration of the recruitment process is largely a clerical activity – but that does not mean you can ignore it. Here are a few points you should bear in mind:

  • Candidates will be particularly anxious to know what is happening, so you will probably need to brief the switchboard and your colleagues or secretary to handle expected calls.

  • Application forms and further particulars should be ready to go out immediately after a candidate contacts the organisation. Keep records of the people to whom they are sent.

  • Keep a record of returned application forms, and acknowledge these by return of post, preferably with some indication of what the next step will be. If costs prevent this, invite applicants to include a stamped addressed envelope if they require acknowledgement of receipt.

  • Give as much notice as possible to those whom you intend to interview, giving them some choice of date and time if that is feasible, and ask them if they have any special needs. They should also be given a name and telephone number to contact if they have any queries. Make sure they know where and when to attend for the interview.

  • Send a courteous letter to those who are not shortlisted as soon as you are certain they will not be required.

  • If you intend to take up references, you should send out letters as soon as possible, allowing plenty of time for the references to arrive before the date of the interviews. But make sure candidates are happy for you to ask for references from their current employer before you send out the letters.

  • Keep detailed records of all correspondence at every stage.

4.10 4.10 Shortlisting

It is common to shortlist up to six applicants per position, but the exact number may reflect the time you have available for interviewing and the strength of the applicants. The important point is to ensure that as far as possible you finish up with the best possible candidates on the shortlist. This can best be achieved by approaching the task systematically. In other words, the systematic use of criteria as detailed in the job specification should be preferred to reliance on intuition. It is sensible to reject those applications that do not match these key criteria closely. If feasible, keeping a set of notes as you shortlist is a good idea. This helps you to remember or explain the grounds on which you decided to interview or reject each candidate.

Activity 4.2 Activity 3

0 hours 20 minutes

The following details have been taken from application forms submitted by candidates for the post of Buying Department Manager. The job description can be found in Example 1 and the person specification in Table 1. Imagine that you have already shortlisted three good candidates and need to add only one more to complete your shortlist.

Table 4.2
Terry ChurchillAnne OlsenColin ComptonRenate Schmidt
AddressSuburbsVillage 50 miles awayCity centre200 miles away-willing to relocate
Age58344543
Driving licenceYesYesNoYes
NationalityBritishBritishBritishGerman
Current employerABC Computers picCheapshopsCompact Manufacturing LtdDeutsch Chemicals
Size of organisation£400m turnover p.a.£35m turnover p.a.£60m turnover p.a.£600m turnover p.a.
Position heldPurchasing ManagerSenior BuyerBuyerSenior Buyer
Number of previous employersNoneFiveFourNone
Professional qualificationsMember of professional instituteMember of professional instituteMember of professional instituteNone
Education3 A-levels, 8 GCSEs/O-levels5 GCSEs/O-levels2 A-levels, 8 GCSEs/O-levelsArbitur
Further educationDegree in Chemistry; MBACertificate in ManagementDegree in Operations Management; Certificate in ManagementDegree in Economics from Wuppertal University; Diploma in Management
Court convictionsNoneNoneYes: driving offenceNone
Other informationMember of the local Chamber of CommerceStudying for Professional Diploma in Management; fluent English and DanishStudying for Professional Diploma in ManagementFluent English, German and French; studying for MBA

Who would you shortlist? Why did you make this choice?

The following table might help you to make a decision. It records whether each candidate reaches the ‘minimum’ or the ‘desirable’ level.

Table 4.3
Terry ChurchillAnne OlsenColin ComptonRenate Schmidt
EducationDesirableMinimumDesirableDesirable
Further educationDesirableDesirableDesirableDesirable
Professional qualificationsDesirableMinimumDesirableNone
Experience of purchasingDesirable (too much?)PossiblyDesirableDesirable
Management of peopleDesirableMinimumMinimumDesirable
LanguagesNoneSomeNoneDesirable
TravelDesirableDesirablePossiblyDesirable

Several of the characteristics on the job specification are impossible to determine from a candidate's application form. And several of the observable characteristics require some guesswork. You must, therefore, be careful not to put too much weight on subjective judgements. However, the following factors may affect your decision.

Anne Olsen seems the least qualified candidate, mainly because the buying skills required for a retail shop are likely to be very different from the buying skills that you are looking for.

Colin Compton seems excellent, apart from his lack of a driving licence and his conviction. But he lives locally and could easily get to work. How essential is a driving licence for the fortnightly visits to suppliers? As for the conviction, he has paid the penalty – should he be further disadvantaged?

Terry Churchill seems an excellent candidate, but two factors might have influenced you against him: his age and his experience. He is 58 years old and he seems very senior. Is he too senior? But is that a fair question to ask? His motivation for applying is important, not his age. It is important to ask questions in order to reveal whether the candidate is able to do the job, and not for other reasons.

Two factors appear to weaken Renate Schmidt's application: she is not a member of a professional body and she needs to relocate. However, in Germany it is not common for people to join professional bodies and she has applied for the job in the knowledge that she must relocate.

4.11 4.11 References

References can be useful, but they do have some limitations: no one would supply the name of a referee who was likely to give a bad reference. However, it is always a good idea to request them of the candidates who have been shortlisted (but, as we have already said, bear in mind that some candidates may not want their employers approached until they have actually been offered a job). It is helpful for referees if you enclose all the information sent out to the prospective candidate and point out clearly any essential requirements of the job. You may want to ask specific questions relating to the candidate's suitability in certain areas.

4.12 4.12 Candidates make decisions too

In the past people have tended to see selection primarily as organisations choosing between individuals. However, we must not forget that candidates are also making choices: about whether to write in for an application form, whether to apply, whether to attend an interview, whether to accept an offered job. This makes it important for organisations to treat candidates in a sensitive and responsive manner. They will need to pay attention to their recruitment materials, to provide realistic job descriptions and to be aware of how candidates are treated.

Recruitment processes vary between sectors and between organisations. They are also constantly changing (Box 4).

Box 4.4 Box 4: Internet recruitment

There has been a significant increase in the use of the Internet for recruitment purposes. One way of using the Internet is to post vacancy advertisements on some of the specially created ‘job boards’ – electronic versions of a newspaper's situations pages. Another method is to incorporate a recruitment section in a company website. Although there are capital costs to this, they may represent a modest investment considering the price of national newspaper advertisements and the potential long-term use of a website. Organisations need to encourage potential recruits to visit the site by placing small advertisements on job boards and in the press indicating the organisation's web address.

The audience for recruitment websites has been concentrated in younger age groups and professional occupations, although this is likely to broaden out. Recruitment costs may be reduced – some US firms claim a 45 per cent saving by using the Internet.

Criteria for success are that visitors to a company website should find it convenient to use, up to date and offering online application facilities. The advantage to the organisation is the technical simplicity of adding applicant details to its database and in conducting online dialogue with applicants about job and career requirements so that they can be advised when a suitable vacancy arises.

Thus the Internet offers several attractions to both recruiters and job hunters.

5 5 Methods of selection

5.1 5.1 The interview as a selection method: pros and cons

Traditionally, the interview has been the main means of assessing the suitability of candidates for a job. Almost all organisations use the interview at some stage in their selection process. Similarly, most applicants expect to be interviewed. Interviews are useful for assessing such personal characteristics as practical intelligence and interpersonal and communication skills. The interview can be used for answering applicants’ questions, selling the organisation and negotiating terms and conditions. It is a matter of debate whether an interview accurately assesses ability at work, relevant experience and work skills. A further problem with interviews is that factors that are not related to the job influence the decision: clothing, colour, ethnic origin, gender, accent, physical features or a disability might be such factors. There is also evidence that interviewers make decisions very rapidly on little information. You need to be aware of the potential pitfalls in using selection interviews and may choose to supplement them with a variety of tests. Some of these are considered below.

5.2 5.2 Tests as a selection tool

There are various types of tests and ways in which they might be used as part of the selection process (see Box 5). Before using any kind of test you should ensure that you know why you are using it and how it relates to the job specification.

Box 5.1 Box 5: Selection tests

Aptitude tests

  • Tests of physical ability: used for the selection of manual workers. For example, a test of the ability to perform lifting operations might be used.

  • Mental ability tests: tests of literacy, numeracy and intelligence.

  • Analogous tests: tests which simulate some of the actual tasks in the job, for example a typing or word-processing test for secretaries. Group problem-solving exercises and presentations may be suitable for managerial jobs.

Personality tests

The use of these in selection comes from the assumption that certain jobs require certain personalities and that tests can identify them. The most common form of personality test is questionnaires designed to rate respondents on various personality dimensions. The individual is rated for being persuasive, socially confident, competitive, decisive, introspective, artistic, conceptual, traditional, independent, extravert, stable, optimistic, and so on. Most reputable personality tests need to be administered and scored by trained and licensed users. Organisations selling personality tests usually recommend that they are not the only method used for selection.

Assessment centre

This is a process, rather than a place, that uses a number of selection techniques in combination. A typical assessment centre would assemble 12 applicants after screening and subject them to tests such as intelligence tests, presentations, group work and interviews.

Tests can be very useful in the selection process as they actually replicate certain parts of the job, whereas a selection interview can only indicate whether the person has that ability. However, most tests are time-consuming to administer and can be used indiscriminately. It would be very unusual to use a test as the sole means of selecting and, particularly with personality tests, it should not be the major evidence on which the decision to appoint or not is made. Very often the results of personality tests are used in interviews as the basis for further investigation and questioning about an applicant's abilities.

5.3 5.3 The selection interview

The aim of the selection interview is to determine whether the candidate is interested in the job and competent to do it. A selection interview also has the following functions:

  • to explain the work of the organisation, the job and any features such as induction and probation

  • to set expectations on both sides, including a realistic discussion of any potential difficulties (if appropriate)

  • to enable the candidate to assess whether they want the job being offered.

Selection interviews are not easy to conduct and it is preferable – some organisations insist on it – that everyone involved has participated in some kind of training. Most managers believe they can interview competently but probably few have subjected their interviewing practice to close scrutiny and thought about how they can improve their performance. Important decisions have to be made, such as how many people should be on the interview panel, who would be the most appropriate people, and what role they should play. One-to-one selection interviews are difficult to conduct, not least because there is more likelihood of subjectivity creeping in.

Preparation is an extremely important stage in the process. Box 6 indicates four factors to consider in preparing for an interview and gives some examples.

Box 5.2 Box 6: Considerations in interview preparation

What does the interviewer(s) need for the interview?

  • Job description, person specification

  • Individual application forms, CVs, etc.

  • Details of terms and conditions of employment: hours of work, fringe benefits, perks, etc.

  • Information on general prospects, training, induction etc. within the organisation

What does the candidate need?

  • Details of venue; to be met on arrival

  • Access to facilities: toilets, any special needs for candidates with disabilities

  • Comfortable waiting area

Location requirements

  • Suitable room and layout: consider whether formal or informal and what type of setting to create

  • Freedom from interruptions and other discomforts and distractions such as extraneous noise, uncomfortable furniture, extremes of temperature, etc.

  • Appropriate access for people with special needs

Requirements of a good interview

  • A structured interview plan enabling the interviewer(s) to assess what they are looking for in the candidate and whether the person:

     

    • could do the job (assessment against the person specification)

    • would do the job (judgements of motivation and commitment)

    • would fit (elements of person-organisation fit)

    (Note: a well-developed person specification should include criteria relating to all three areas.)

  • A clear idea of the areas of questioning for each candidate to check that they fulfil the criteria

  • Agreement on the roles of those involved in the interview if there is a panel: who will chair and how questions will be divided among the panel members in an organised way

  • A disciplined approach to timing: enough time for each candidate and not too many candidates per day

Interviews have distinct and recognisable stages, and individuals have certain expectations about what should happen when, but try not to become routinised or mechanistic in your approach.

5.4 5.4 Structuring the interview

5.4.1 5.4.1 Introduction and Starting

In a panel interview one member will need to take the chair; this person will then be responsible for initiating, controlling and closing the interview. It is also the role of the chair to link and control the contributions of the panel members.

If you are the chair, you should always introduce the panel members to the candidate and explain how the interview will be conducted. A relaxed and skilful lead interviewer will then continue to establish and maintain rapport throughout the exchange with the candidate.

5.4.2 5.4.2 The main body of the interview

Your main objective is to gather information. A practical target is to expect the candidate to talk for 70 per cent of the time. Example 2 describes the kind of conduct to avoid when interviewing.

Example 5.1 Example 2: Interview weaknesses

David was really pleased to have been asked to an interview for the job of Project Manager. He spent a lot of time preparing for the interview, finding out more about the organisation in his local library and collating the documentation required, such as qualification certificates, additional references and so on.

On the day of the interview, David arrived early but was not asked into the interview room until 30 minutes after his allotted time. The first thing he was asked to do by a member of the panel was ‘describe your major weaknesses and what you have done to overcome them’. This completely floored David and he struggled to respond. It was not a good start. A second member of the panel quizzed him closely about his fluency in other languages but was sharply reminded by his colleague that it was not that job they were interviewing for. The third member of the panel asked some relevant questions, but all the time David was talking he was looking through a pile of papers on the desk in front of him.

David received a letter a week later offering him the job; he decided not to accept.

Some essential interviewing skills are outlined below.

Effective questioning. The level of detail you require from a question should determine the way you ask it. Some questions have a very broad focus and will stimulate the candidate to talk at length while you look out for specific things you want to check on. When you find something, you can zoom in on it and ask a probing question so that you receive a precise answer (a ‘closed’ question). The skill in questioning is, therefore, to frame your questions to suit your purpose. When you open up a new area of enquiry, you need to use ‘open’ questions that will start the candidate talking. Take care not to make them too broad, especially in the early stages, or you will leave the candidate floundering and wondering what to say. As you identify specific items that you want to concentrate on, you can start to focus your questions using different types as appropriate.

Another common approach is the use of questions about specific incidents from the past that demonstrate the candidate's suitability for the current job. This is sometimes known as behavioural interviewing. Consider approaches to assessing whether someone is a good project manager. You could say to them, ‘Tell me what you know about project management.’ Equally, you could ask, ‘How would you ensure that a project runs to plan?’ The skilful interviewee will take this opportunity to present their wide range of knowledge about project management approaches and techniques, almost textbook fashion. However, does this mean that they are a good project manager in practice? An alternative approach would be to ask them about actual instances when they have managed projects and what they did to ensure the success of the project. For example, a question such as ‘Tell me about the most complex project you have had to manage in the past’ will open up the discussion. You could then listen for cues to probe specifically what they contributed to that project in order to assess their project management skills. The interviewee might say, ‘There was one particular project that was really difficult as we were working to such tight deadlines, but we met them.’ The interviewer's probing question would be something like, ‘What did you do personally to ensure that the deadlines were met?’ The probing is used to elicit actual examples of what someone has done in the past to show they are skilled in a particular area. This can be much more effective than asking hypothetical questions that only test a person's knowledge.

Some examples of questions you might ask in relation to other aspects of managerial jobs are set out in Table 2.

Table 5.1 Table 2: Examples of behavioural questions for managerial jobs
Aspect of jobPossible questions
Developing staffWhat has been your most satisfying experience in the past of developing a staff member? What did you do specifically to achieve it?
Managing conflictTell me about a time when you have had to mediate in a conflict between two people. What did you do?
Representing your group or organisationWhat has been the most difficult representational role you have had to perform in the past? How did you ensure that the best interests of the group/organisation were safeguarded?

There are some general points about interview questions:

  • The questions should be capable of eliciting information that is relevant to success or failure at work.

  • They should not be random or overlapping; rather, they should be comprehensive, grouped in an organised way and clearly distinguishable.

  • Similar areas of questioning should be used for all candidates.

  • The questions should allow you to compare each candidate with the job/person specification.

We have been looking at examples of questions about the job itself, but how can you assess the degree of fit between the person and the organisation, as discussed previously? Box 7 provides some examples of questions related to fit with the organisation which you might find useful.

Box 5.3 Box 7: Examples of organisation fit questions
  1. Could you compare the cultures of the organisations where you have worked before and say how the differences affected your behaviour at work?

  2. Where were you happiest at work? (followed by) What was it about the place that made you feel like this?

  3. Why did you decide to join each of the organisations you have worked for?

  4. What factors will cause you to decide whether or not to leave your current employer?

  5. How is your effectiveness measured in your present job?

  6. How do you cope with working in teams?

  7. What are the things you have regretted leaving behind at places where you have worked in the past?

(Source: based on Billsberry, 2000, pp. 156–7)

Controlling the flow of the interview. This is the second key interview skill: the ability to keep a candidate talking about the things you need to know about. Different kinds of interview require different levels of control. A good interviewer can adjust their style to the particular circumstances of the interview while it is in progress. To be able to control the direction and flow of the interview so that it corresponds closely with the plan, an interviewer needs to be aware of the control mechanisms available. These can be the types of questions asked and encouraging sounds and body language, such as maintaining eye contact, sitting forward, nodding and smiling as appropriate.

Using listening skills. Your third essential skill is active listening. This means you need to concentrate, give all your attention to someone and, where appropriate, summarise and reflect on what they say. Be aware of factors – personal and environmental – that can interfere with your ability to receive and interpret signals, such as noise outside the room, room temperature and clarity of speech.

Evaluating the information. Your fourth skill is concerned with assessing what you hear from the candidate. As the interview proceeds you will need to be assessing whether the answers to your questions are producing useful evidence of job suitability, or are superficial and raise doubts about suitability.

5.5 5.5 Closing and deciding

5.5.1 5.5.1 Drawing the interview to a close

Up to now we have been considering how to control and conduct the main body of an interview. There remains, however, the need to draw it to a satisfactory close. You should remember that, while you are trying to select the best candidate, the candidates are also ‘selecting’ you. You need to remember that you as an interviewer are being assessed and selected, and you need to ensure your presentational and interpersonal skills are up to the job.

When you are satisfied that you have all the information you require, it is important that you give the candidate two invitations:

  • first, to tell you about anything that has not been covered, or to expand on anything that has not been adequately covered (for example, a relevant accomplishment that the candidate wants you to know about)

  • second, to ask you questions in order to clarify any features of the job or the terms and conditions associated with it.

Only when the candidate has had this opportunity should you begin concluding the interview. It is good practice to summarise any agreements or understandings that may have been reached and to give a clear indication of what is likely to happen next, and when.

5.5.2 5.5.2 Reaching a final decision

Having seen all the candidates, you can now start to pull together your notes and impressions and make a final decision. It is probably worth allowing a little time to gather your thoughts and/or discuss initial observations with colleagues or the interview panel after every interview so that your memory is not confused. The person specification should again play a major role in your final decision. Your questions should have been geared to elicit the necessary information from each applicant to enable you to ascertain their suitability against the agreed criteria. Example 3 shows the importance of meeting the person specification.

Example 5.2 Example 3: Meeting the criteria

In the city hospital, the Personnel Manager was called upon by the Outpatients supervisor to help in a case of poor performance – the individual concerned was generally offhand with staff and patients and was only meeting minimum standards in her written work. She had been in post for about six months.

The Personnel Manager asked about the appointment. The supervisor admitted that the individual's references had not been all that impressive. She also admitted later: ‘No one on the panel wanted to appoint her but she met all the criteria so we felt we had to – we can never recruit to these posts anyway.’

The Personnel Manager was worried by this and made a mental note to talk to her colleagues about it. She was aware that it was extremely difficult to fill advertised posts in certain departments in the hospital. However, she felt strongly that this should not result in the appointment of staff who did not meet the person specification. More thought was required in terms of where the posts were advertised and the shortlisting and interviewing skills of staff in the hospital.

The planning of the selection process will help you to reach an objective decision, but intuition cannot be completely ignored. What is important is that you can explain objectively – preferably to colleagues and not just to yourself – the basis of your intuition. If you feel that one candidate would fit perfectly into your team, what is it – precisely – that gives you that impression?

Activity 5.1 Activity 4
0 hours 10 minutes

Think back to the most recent interview you have participated in, either as an interviewer or as an interviewee. With the models and suggestions of this session in mind:

  1. Identify and explain at least one positive aspect of the way the interview was conducted.

  2. Identify and explain at least one weak aspect of it.

  3. Make a note of three things from this session that you will try to apply when next conducting an interview.

There is no universal formula for conducting interviews successfully. Your own style and your panel's self-confidence in pursuing what they want to ascertain are important ingredients of an effective interview. However, the discussion of common pitfalls and proven techniques may help you to increase your confidence and effectiveness in this important selection medium.

5.6 6 Summary

This unit has looked at specifying the requirements of a job by drawing up a job description and a person specification. We considered how you might indicate the qualities required of individuals in relation to person-organisation fit as well as the more traditional approach of person-job fit. We then considered various methods of attracting candidates and the process of arriving at a shortlist. We have stressed the importance of preparing for the selection process, be it an interview alone or with accompanying tests. The importance of effective interviewing skills was also emphasised.

  • Objective recruitment requires preparation and an awareness of the tendency of recruiters to look positively on similarities with themselves and negatively on differences (halo and horns effects).

  • The person–job fit approach concentrates on measuring the candidate's attributes in relation to the specific job vacancy.

  • The person–organisation fit approach considers how well suited the candidate is to the organisation.

  • The key stages of good selection are: the job analysis; the job description; the person specification.

  • Applicants can be attracted by a wide range of media, but all advertising requires effective back-up recruitment administration, including the shortlisting and reference processes.

  • Job advertisements need to be carefully constructed to attract high-quality applicants.

  • Aptitude and personality tests can supplement interviews, sometimes using assessment centres.

  • Key features of effective selection interviews include:

     

    • training of interviewers

    • composition of panel

    • preparation, including details of who will ask which questions

    • timing

    • role of panel chair

    • the candidate doing most of the talking

    • open and behavioural questions

    • organisation fit questions

    • controlling the flow

    • listening skills

    • closure

    • using the person specification to reach final decisions

6 Next steps

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References

Billsberry, J. (2000) Finding and keeping the Right People, 2nd edn, London, Prentice-Hall
Cowling, A.G. and Mailer, C.J.B (1981) Managing Human Resources, London, Edward Arnold.
Ludlow, R. and Panton, F. (1991) The Essence of Successful Staff Selection, London, Prentice-Hall.

Acknowledgements

Except for third party materials and otherwise stated (see terms and conditions), this content is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 2.0 Licence

Grateful acknowledgement is made to the following sources for permission to reproduce material in this product:

Box 1 Reprinted from "Managing Human Resources", Cowling, A.G. and Mailer, C.J.R., p.9, © 1981, with permission from Elsevier;

Example 1 Reprinted from "Managing Human Resources", Cowling, A.G. and Mailer, C.J.R., pp 12-13, © 1981, with permission from Elsevier;

Table 1 Reprinted from "Managing Human Resources", Cowling, A.G. and Mailer, C.J.R., p.19, © 1981, with permission from Elsevier

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